1A] Political Strategies of India’s Freedom Struggle

1. Introduction

Indian National Movement was a prolonged battle and involved various phases. The Revolt of 1857 marks the first organized efforts against the British Rule. This was followed by the period, where institutionalized efforts began against the British rule. For some time, the British were seen as positive agents of change. Social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy sided with the British to bring social change, and others saw them as a ‘blessing in disguise’.

The disillusionment, however, started after the 1860s. As the economic exploitation by foreign hands became more visible, the resistance against it started growing. This struggle evolved in various stages, and different methods were adopted at various stages to oust the British. The earliest methods, called constitutionalism (prayers & petitions), dominated till 1905. The extremist leaders took over after that till the arrival of Gandhi in 1914. Gandhi marked the beginning of mass movements which ultimately led India to its liberation.

Various Stages of Indian Nationalism

1. Early Nationalism – Revolt of 1857
2. Moderate Nationalism (1880s to 1905)
3. Extremist Nationalism (1905-1914)
4. Gandhian Phase of Indian Freedom Struggle (1914-1947)

2. The Revolt of 1857

The suppressed feelings of Indians against the British East India Company were given a sudden vent in 1857. The disputes soon spiraled into a full-blown revolt of Indian soldiers against the East India Company. Although unsuccessful in throwing out the British, the revolt remains an important chapter in Indian history.

2.1 Views of V D Savarkar

VD Savarkar wrote a book in 1908 titled ‘Indian War of Independence’. He was the first to call the 1857 revolt the war for independence. He presents the following argument in his book

1. The annexation of Oudh and the case of greased cartridges were merely but small excuses to what was already in the process
2. The rupture of local traditions, mockery of Indian customs and religion, not recognizing the adopted rulers (a tradition allowed by Hindu Dharmashastra) the promotion of Christianity –were the main factors for rebellion.
3. The unifying feature of the war was the desire for swadharma and swaraj.
4. The presence of secret organizations illustrates that the revolt had a plan and a purpose. – these secret cells spread the message, awakening a sense of purpose, pride and nationalistic consciousness. It involved a coded communication language, infiltration of garrisons and villages by activists dressed as fakirs, sanyasis, sadhus, maulvis etc. The start of the war was signaled by a symbolic distribution of chapatis and red lotuses.
5. Further, the restoration of Bahadur Shah was not a retrograde action but the consequence of nationalist re-awakening. A declaration that the long-standing war between Hindus and Mohammadens has ended (for the greater purpose of defeating the British).

Savarkar believed that though the attempt was defeated, the spirit of nationalism had survived and it will lead to another war for independence in future.

For the War of 1857 shall not cease till the revolutionary arrives, striking slavery into dust, elevating liberty to the throne…. The war began on the 10th of May 1857 is not over on the 10th of May 1908, nor shall it cease till a 10th of May-to come sees the destiny accomplished, sees the beautiful India crowned.

– Savarkar in ‘Oh Martyrs’ speech 1908

2.2 British Historian’s Perspective

Another discourse, calling the uprising to be a mere sepoy mutiny, was led by British Historians. According to them, triggered by a few disgruntled soldiers, the revolution was just an act of indiscipline within the army. A normal occurrence in the course of time for such a large organization. It was sporadic, unplanned and occupied only parts of India, and beyond the overthrow of the East India Company, the soldiers had no greater vision behind the revolt.

British historians have argued that there was no unity of purpose; while sepoys wanted to restore Mughal rule, the inhabitants of Oudh wanted their Nawab back, and so did the people of Zansi. Peasants, on the other hand, just wanted a reduction in their tax rates. There was no central leadership to the revolt. The feudal leaders, the queen of Zansi, Tantia Tope, and Kunwar Singh – all fought only to restore their former privileges.

3. Moderate Nationalism

There are different types of political strategies adopted by the politicians or groups to achieve the political aim. Constitutionalism is a political strategy based on the philosophy of liberalism. An assumption that man is rational and hence political ends can be achieved by rational dialogue. There is no need of the use of violence in achieving political aims.

Constitutional methods can be called as institutional methods and includes prayers, petitions, popular demands etc. States can provide different institutions like parliament, gram-sabha, for representation of people’s demands and their involvement in administration. Free and fair judicial system is another assumption of this method.

The early national leaders who led Indian freedom struggle are known as moderates, and their methods are called as constitutionalism. It dominated the scene till the extremist leader took the centre stage in Indian politics.

3.1 Aim of Moderates

Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 to institutionalize the process of nationalism. The objectives of INC included – to create and spread a national feeling among Indians, to politically educate and organize them, to create a political platform for political activities and to unify the Indian leadership.

Most of the Congress leaders were educated in western education and were impressed with values of liberalism. The aim of the Congress was piecemeal reform. Their complaint was only against un-British rule, and not foreign rule per se. They felt that the Indians at this stage cannot be left to themselves and the British rule is a source of modernization. They had great faith in British sense of justice. M G Ranade thanked British for introducing rule of law, expressed that British rule in India is a divine intervention to eradicate the evils of misrule of the past.

Surendranath Banerjee appealed to the British to introduce the institutions which are truly British in character so that Indians can rejoice in permanent union with British.

Dadabhai Nairoji held that British are justice loving people. Indians have to communicate their demand to the British in ‘reasonable manner’. Ranade held that British rule is a source of inspiration, hope and confidence. He held that Indians are fortunate that they are ruled by the British.

Thus, they wanted greater autonomy within British empire like Canada and Australia. A greater participation, Indianization of civil services demands to share political power, control over purse of govt, over military expenditure. As a whole it focused on national issues than regional concerns and also failed to grasp the real nature of British rule.

For another reason, as suggested by Gokhale, constitutional methods were adopted according to the circumstances. Direct action required immense preparation and Indians were not ready for such action. According to C. Y. Chintamani, before introducing direct actions, we have to address internal divisions and disunity.

The means for the process speeches and articles, the use of press, intellectual debates and agitations against government economic policies, bringing resolutions in assembly, sending memorials to govt, prayers, petitions etc.

3.2 Achievements of Moderates

These leaders contributed to develop an economic critique of colonialism. It exposed the exploitative nature and the poverty created in India by British Raj. It demonstrated how the British rule was responsible for the loss of livelihood for many artisans and put forth the Drain of wealth theory.  It became a major theme for future nationalistic movement.

3.3 Assessment of Moderate Nationalism

The idea of constitutionalism is itself an imported idea. Constitutionalism originated in Britain, and was introduced in India by the colonial masters along with modern institutions like rule of law, modern judicial system, civil services and assemblies.

Britishers ruled India not only by the use of coercive methods, but they also tried to build hegemony by doing certain good actions. To gain the legitimacy of British rule, they incorporated Indians in assemblies as well as in civil services, gave concession at times and

Early nationalists employed constitutional methods like bringing resolutions in the assembly, sending memorials, prayers, petitions, appeals to justice and protests.

Thus, constitutional methods differ from direct actions like passive resistance, satyagraha, non-cooperation, dharana, haratal, boycott, civil disobedience, rebellions, mutiny, terrorism, criminal actions, aiding foreign invasions, subversion.

Bipin Chandra

Bipin Chandra suggests that the early nationalist leaders were both learners and teachers. No readymade understanding of colonialism was available to them. There were many questions about nature of colonialism, contradiction of Indian bureaucrats within British government, the ability and the methods to fight British? Before it could be a struggle against colonialism, it was a struggle about colonialism.

He quotes Dadabhai Nairoji who wrote in 1905 The very discontent and impatience it (the Congress) has evoked against itself as slow and non-progressive among the rising generation are among its best results or fruit.

GK Gokhale

G K Gokhale remarked in 1907 ‘Let us not forget that we are at a stage of the country’s progress when our achievements are bound to be small, and our disappointments frequent and trying…. We, of the present generation must be content to serve her mainly by our failures. For hard, though it be, out of those failures the strength will come which in the end will accomplish great tasks.’

Other Leaders

‘Constitutional methods in front of alien bureaucracy is a political suicide’ – Tilak

Constitutional methods reflect ‘intellectual bankruptcy of the leaders’. Aurobindo Ghosh believed that Indians will have to strike at the roots of colonialism. That is – boycotting the foreign goods and adopting Swadeshi. – Aurobindo Ghosh

Constitutional methods will not work because India does not have constitutional government. – Pandit Nehru

M G Ranade held that ‘The memorials are not addressed to the British, they are addressed to the Indians.’

4. Extremist Nationalism

The second generation of the leaders represented by Lal Bal Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal) are called as extremists. They were dis-satisfied with the achievements of early nationalists. The use of the term extremists and militants is relative. These leaders appear extremist in their demands and methods in comparison to earlier leaders which now appeared ‘moderates’.

There is not much basic difference between the two in terms of goals. The goal of both remained Swaraj. With the exception of Aurobindo Ghosh, Swaraj even for all extremist leaders was ‘dominion statues’ and self-rule.

The only difference was that they were getting impatient. Whatever reforms Britishers have introduced in the name of Indian council acts appeared too little and too late. It failed to meet the aspirations. No effective representation of Indians in law making, Indians only got gradual rights to ask questions on budget and to bring resolutions.

The main difference was in the strategy. Extremists favored direct actions like passive resistance, boycott, Swadeshi, national education, national courts etc. Tilak rejected the method of petition and asserted that Swaraj is the birthright of Indians. Tilak justified prajadroh i.e. the right of the people to resist the government which exploits.

4.1 Evaluation of extremists.

Extremists phase was the next logical step. Swadeshi movement can be considered as successful movement led by INC. Extremists could preserve the credibility of INC and created the base for the launch of Gandhi’s mass movement.

Extremists have given the stronger theory of nationalism based on cultural symbols. Unfortunately, it provided opportunity to the British to give communal color to the movement, presenting INC as party of Hindus. To defeat the nationalist consciousness which emerged because of Swadeshi, Britishers had introduced Morley-Minto reforms of 1909, gave separate electorate to Muslims. Thus led the statutory foundation of the two-nation theory.

5. Gandhian Strategy

Gandhi led one of the biggest mass movements in the world, successfully.

Mass movements can be categorized into two basic types. 1) Uncontrolled mass movements – French revolution was spontaneous, uncontrolled mass movement. 2) Controlled mass movements – Russian revolution, Chinese revolution, Gandhian movements are examples of planned, directed and controlled mass movements.

We can also categorize mass movements in terms of strategy into two basic types.

1. Marxist – Leninist movement – The characteristic is they are sudden, comprehensive and achieve the immediate overthrow of the system. (Overnight movements.)

2. Gramscian and Gandhian movements – Gramsci and Gandhi were contemporaries and show unique convergence in context of the strategy. They suggested two-stage revolution in case of ‘opaque states’. (Where it is difficult to understand the exploitative nature of state). Hence the movement has to be ‘protracted movement’. There has to be a war of position, an ideological war before arriving at a point of direct action or war of maneuver/frontal attack.

According to Bipin Chandra, Gandhian mass movement was a long, protracted movement with its active and passive phases. Active phases included mass agitation; passive phases included constructive programs. Bipin Chandra calls Gandhi’s strategy as a strategy of S-T-S (Struggle-Truce-Struggle). Gandhian strategy was based on the understanding of mass psychology. Masses have limited capacity to participate. Besides being a psychologist, Gandhi was a master strategist. Gandhi knew when to start the movement, when to call off the movement.

Gandhi’s approach as ‘proactive’ rather than reactive. Gandhian movements are proactive in the sense Gandhi never left ball in the courts of enemy. He forced enemy to respond. It was always initiative of Gandhi. The time and place, issue was all choice of Gandhi. Gandhi was offensive rather than defensive.

5.1 Non-Cooperation movement.

It was first truly Gandhian movement at pan India level. Gandhi started the movement at that time because the political environment was conducive to start the movement. People were looking for action in background of:

1. Rowlett Act and suppression of civil liberties
2. Extreme pain because of Jallianwala bag tragedy
3. Extreme disappointment and frustration because of the report of Hunter commission, and the massive support by British public for General Dyer
4. Economic distress because of 1st WW
5. Khilafat movement as an opportunity to bring Muslims together

In Nagpur session of 1920, congress adopted the program of extra-constitutional mass struggle led by Gandhi. Right to refuse cooperation with the ruler who misrules. Gandhi’s promised that such method can deliver Swaraj within a year.

Strategy of non-cooperation

1. Surrender of titles and honors
2. Boycott of government schools, colleges and foreign clothes
3. No tax campaign in case provincial congress committee approves
4. Opening of national schools, colleges, panchayat courts, promotion of Khadi, maintaining Hindu-Muslim unity, giving up untouchability
5. Strict adherence to non-violence
6. Congress to reach to mohalla levels

Congress described the movement as a peaceful, legitimate protest for attainment of Swaraj, by direct action rather than constitutional means.

However, Gandhi called off the movement abruptly after the Chaurichaura incident in February 1922.

Reaction Against Gandhi’s Decision

Gandhi came under harsh criticism not only by non-congress leaders but even from congressmen. Even Pandit Nehru questioned the rationale of calling off the movement. Major criticism came from communists. They believed that Gandhi was fearful of masses acquiring power.

Analysis by Bipin Chandra

The real reason was that Gandhi wanted ‘graceful exit’. By this time, masses were getting exhausted. There were violent incidents in some regions like Moppila revolt in Malabar. Moppila revolt would have taken communal color. Gandhi realized that because of Chaurichaura incident, government will get excuse to use massive force. If government uses force, people will get scared and it will be difficult to rebuild the movement.

Assessment of Non-Cooperation Movement

Movement was failure in terms of stated objectives and the promises made by Gandhi and Congress. However, movement was successful in the sense Gandhi got all that he wanted.

Gandhi’s wanted to test the capacity of masses for struggle. He wanted to establish Congress as the party of masses and not representing ‘microscopic minority’. Gandhi wanted national movement to become mass movement. It means multi-class movement rather than just limited to the middle classes.

There were also some visible successes e.g.

1. boycott of the visit of prince of Wales, 
2. Boycott of foreign goods.

5.2 Civil Disobedience Movement [CDM] (1930-31)

It is a finest example of Gandhian strategy. Non-Cooperation can be considered as mild in comparison to Civil Disobedience, which was more provocative. Civil Disobedience was direct challenge to the authority whereas NCM was just targeting the economic base of colonialism.

NCM was not cooperating with the state, but civil disobedience was ‘willful disobedience’ of the authority. It is like questioning the legitimacy of the state.

CDM was more offensive than NCM. Gandhi wanted Britishers to use force. It would have challenged the myth of ‘benevolent despotism’. In case British state does not use force, it meant ‘collapse of the state’, if it uses force, it meant the collapse of its hegemony.

Since the strategy of CDM has put colonial state in dilemma, expressed by Viceroy as ‘dammed if you do and dammed if you don’t.’ It took them time to decide the arrest of Gandhi. This permitted Gandhi to complete his march. Once Gandhi completed his march, similar marches were organized. It became impossible for state not to arrest Gandhi. Arrest of Gandhi led to more rigorous protests. Ultimately government had no option but to release Gandhi. This has shown the victory of Gandhi. CDM ended in Gandhi-Irwin pact 1931, where govt. had accepted almost all of the demands of Gandhi. It strengthened credibility of Congress, and also elevated it to an equal footing with govt.

Civil Disobedience is also an example of Gandhi’s proactive approach. Gandhi started the movement when he realized that the atmosphere is favorable. Atmosphere was surcharged with ‘anti-British’ feelings because of a) economic hardships because of economic depression & b) Simon commission and death of Lala Lajapatrai.

Gandhi’s demands

There were 11-point demands.

1. Abolition of salt tax
2. Total prohibition on sale of liquor
3. Reduction of land revenue by half
4. Reduction of military expenditure by half
5. Reduction in the salary of the higher officials
6. Hike in the tariff of imported goods
7. Release political prisoners
8. Abolition of CID
9. License to use arms in self defense
10. Rationalization of rupee pound-sterling ratio
11. Coastal tariff regulation bill

5.3 Quit India Movement 1942

Known as most un-Gandhian, least controlled & most militant. In Quit India Movement, Gandhi allowed the use of force for self-defense. Gandhi held that use of force is justified against the stronger and well-equipped aggressor.

Gandhi called for ‘Do or Die’ but do not remain alive to see the country in the state of slavery. Gandhi held that nations survive when people are ready to die for nation. He mentioned that any delay in freedom will be injurious and humiliating.

He made it clear that he will not call off the movement. He permitted people to take the control of police stations if needed. He refused to condemn the violence by people, justified it in the light of bigger violence by the state.

Congress in its resolution mentioned a) Congress is not prescribing any restriction.  b) Everyone is free to choose his methods.  c) Don’t bow heads and suffer stroke but pull the sticks and defend yourselves.

Quit India was un-Gandhian in the sense that up till now Gandhi was saying to hate the evil and not the evil doer. Now Gandhi made the objective to throw the Britishers out. QIM was the most spontaneous. Once top leadership was arrested, grassroot leadership emerged on its own. Common man became his own leader. This is what Gandhi wanted. QIM reflect ‘class in itself’ converting into ‘class for itself’. It was Gandhi’s ‘war of movement’, the direct attack. Gandhi declared QIM as the last struggle of his life.

Gandhi permitted the use of violence because he knew that any mass movement cannot be free from violence. Gandhi knew that there will be no birth without blood. Non-violence was just a part of Gandhi’s strategy to bring masses within the fold of national movement. According to Francis Hutchins, Gandhi was, after all a politician. He was a strategist. Once he could bring masses into the movement, non-violence was no more needed.

Response of Other Groups Towards Quit India Movement

Ambedkar called it ‘mad venture of Gandhi’.

M. N. Roy held that Gandhi will strengthen fascist forces.

Hindu Mahasabha called it ‘injurious to Hindu cause’.

Muslim League opposed it.

Within Congress, C Rajagopalachari peered that it will lead to uncontrollable anarchy.

6. Militant and Revolutionary Movements

There used to be revolutionary movements in different phases. We cannot ignore the contribution of revolutionaries. Revolutionaries have filled the vacuums whenever mainstream movement was in passive phase. Revolutionaries displayed remarkable heroism, inspired youth to make sacrifices for motherland. They have given the lost pride of manhood to the Indians back.

Revolutionaries could not get the support of INC, they lacked resources, mass base yet they could inspire youth by their individual acts. It is to be noted that even Indian women also played an active role in the revolutionary movements. We can give example of Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Datt, Madam Kama etc.

The revolutionaries in India were inspired by 1) Bankimchandra Chatterji’s ANANDMATH.  2) Sanchindranath Sanyal’s BANDI JEEVAN.  3) Bhagawati Charan Vohra’s PHILOSOPHY OF BOMB.  4) Irish nationalist, Russian Nihilists and Russian revolutionaries.

Difference between a revolutionary and a terrorist

Revolutionaries are those who do not go for indiscriminate killing of civilians like terrorists.  Revolutionaries target the oppressors. Hence there is a need to make a difference between the two acts where violence is used.

7. Peasant Movement

Peasants were one of the worst sufferers of colonialism. Because of 1) British land settlement policies.  2) Britisher’s destroyed Indian handicrafts.

The history of peasant movement / revolts goes prior to the history of national movement. The subaltern school of historiography represented by Ranjit Guha, Gyan Pandey, Prof. Irfan Habib and even Sumit Sarkar have highlighted the role of peasantry. One of the most well-known peasant revolts was Indigo Rebellion of 1860 documented by Din Bandhu Mitro in his book NEEL DARPAN.

Subaltern historians questioned the nationalist narratives that ‘Gandhi organized peasants’, according to Gyan Pandey, peasant insurrection in India was ‘autonomous’ of the intervention of outside leaders. The way mainstream leaders dealt with the concerns of peasantry was just marginal. Indian national congress never made the problems of peasantry as the core issue. According to Ranjit Guha, Indian national movement led by Gandhi was primarily elitist. Gandhi wanted peasantry to make compromises with the oppressors in the name of harmony between classes.

7.1 Phases of peasant movements

1st Phase – Up till 1920s

Congress did not take up the peasant’s cause. Once Gandhi emerged on the scene, he did bring the issue of peasantry in the agenda of congress but his approach was conciliatory.

2nd Phase – from 1930s Onwards

Congress started organizing peasantry. However, Kisan Sabhas and peasant parties were emerging on their own and also because of the role of communists. Thus, it was not entirely dependent on congress.

In 1936 All India Kisan Sabha was formed under the leadership of Swami Sahajananand. The main demand of Kisan Sabhas was land reforms and regulation of rent.

3rd Phase – 1940s

The two prominent movements of the times were Telangana movement and Tebhaga movement. It was inspired by communists, localized and autonomous in nature.

7.2 Overall assessment

Peasantry in India could not play any concrete role either for itself or in the freedom struggle, comparable to peasantry in China. Mao himself was from the peasantry class, the organic intellectual of peasantry. No such leadership emerged in India. Peasantry remained divided on caste and religious lines.

There are many examples of spontaneous, localized revolts but no all-India level organized effort. This is also one of the reasons behind the failure of land reforms even after independence.

8. Trade Union Movement

Weak movement. Even after independence, there is no strong trade union movement.

Trade unions have been junior partners of political parties, lacking autonomous character. Workers also remained divided on the lines of caste and religion. Their situation has been worse than the peasants.

Chronology of trade union movements in India

1. Emergence of modern workers in 19th century because of introduction of railways, post and telegrams
2. Organized labour movement started by philanthropists like SS Bengalee and Sasipad Banerjee
3. The first trade union/labour organization was formed by Lokhanday known as Bombay Mill hands association
4. There was a growth of socialist ideas in India because of Russian revolution. Hence some leaders started taking interest in organizing workers. Lala Lajapat Rai had great concern for the workers. Even Gandhi led the protest of workers in Ahmedabad Textile Mill
5. In 1920 AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress) was formed with Lala Lajapat Rai as the first president
6. AITUC was infiltrated by communists
7. Communists later on formed their own organization. ‘Red flag trade union’
8. Communists later on again joined AITUC
9. Communist again left during QIM
10. Communist again joined AITUC
11. Later on, Congress left AITUC and formed its own organization INTUC. (Indian National Trade Union Congress)

9. Role of women in freedom movement

The participation of women in politics during freedom movement has emerged a new area of research in historiography. For long, the contribution of women remained neglected. Despite being highly patriarchal society, women participated in the freedom movement in ‘multiple modes’. There are examples where women could successfully protect their states in comparison to male counterparts. We can give the example of Bimbai Holkar who defeated British in guerrilla war. Rani Chenamma could protect the independence of her Kittoor state.  During the revolt of 1857, Rani Laxmibai and Begam Hazarat Mehal played heroic roles.

Women got associated with INC with arrival of Gandhi on the scene of freedom struggle. It was Gandhi who could use women resources in a skilful manner. Women played key role in the constructive programs, especially Khadi/Swadeshi. The prominent women leaders have been Annie Besant, Sarojini Naidu, Bhikaji Kama, Sucheta Kripalani, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur. We can also give the example of Rani Gaindineliu, a Naga women, who remained undeterred by colonial excesses and patriarchal barriers.

Besides participation in freedom movements, there were women leaders like Pandit Ramabai, Durgabai Deshmukh, Basanti Devi, Suniti Devi played role in social and economic empowerment of women. The two important women organizations were YWCA (Young Women Christian Association) of 1875, and All India Women Conference of 1927.

Thus, women played dual role of participating in freedom movement as well as in social reforms.

9.1 Nationalist ideology and women issues.

According to Sumit Sarkar, though women movement in India was started by men, women have been active participant in Congress yet the leaders of congress were not full-blooded liberals. Women issue was never the core issue.

Gandhi’s movement was more using women as a resource for the mass movement rather than upliftment of women as such. Like the concerns of peasantry, workers, women issues were also on the periphery.

We can see the patriarchal approach of the mainstream leaders on women issues in the form of strong protest against Ambedkar’s Hindu Code Bill even by leaders like Dr. Rajendra Prasad.